1. See notes.
2. 40 / 0.5 = 80 m/s/s
3. lower acceleration
4. See notes. Tablecloth pull, etc.
5. firearm recoil, etc.
6. Principia Mathematica, 1687.
7. Many things, but especially the transition from geocentrism to heliocentrism.
8. Ptolemy (ancient - epicycles, etc.) --> Copernicus (1543 dies; first good account of heliocentrism) --> Galileo (1642 dies; telescopic discoveries, great arguments for sun-centered universe) --> Newton (1642-1727; mathematical reasoning for everything, particularly gravity)
9. They helped explain retrograde motion - the apparent backwards motion of planets. Really, planets are orbiting the Sun and there are times that some bodies are "behind" -- it's like when you pass someone on the highway and they "appear" to be moving backwards at that time.
10. mass - the amount of stuff (in kg); weight - the gravitational pull on this stuff (in newtons). The weight depends on where you are (in terms of how the gravitational acceleration changes). For example, your weight on the Moon is 1/6 that of Earth.
11. newton; pound
12. See 11 above.
13. Greater mass has a greater gravitational pull (weight), HOWEVER it also has more resistance to motion. These two effects exactly cancel.
14. accelerate
15. Letting g = 10 m/s/s --> 10 m/s, 5 m
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